HIV/AIDS Research: Its History & Future Meeting
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Martine Peeters: First of all, I would like to thank the organizers for giving me the opportunity to present here today, the work that we did on primate lentiviruses. My story begins a little bit later than most of the talks that we heard today. It started in the period between '86, '89 when we—it means myself and Eric Delaporte who became my husband a few years later, started to be involved [00:00:30] in HIV research. And as we heard over the previous talks, at that time we know already almost for sure that HIV-2 originated from a cross species transmission from sooty mangabeys. This has been confirmed later by other groups and other studies, and today we know that viruses [00:01:00] from sooty mangabeys have been transmitted at least on nine occasions to humans in West Africa. In the same early years, where also other SIVs have been discovered in different African green monkey species and in mandrills, and already to genetic characterization from these viruses showed that a high genetic diversity was present in monkeys.

At that time, '86, '89, we [00:01:30] were working in Gabon, which is the small country in West Central Africa, where we were working also in a small city in this country, Franceville located at 1000 kilometers from the capital city, where there was at that time a research center, which was relatively well equipped because it was in the native village of the President of Gabon.

At a time, the context of HIV infection in Gabon was low HIV [00:02:00] prevalence, but high numbers of HIV samples with indeterminate, Western blot patterns. One of the questions at that time was also, is something happening in Gabon, what we saw previously with HIV-2? Does this correspond to maybe another HIV variant? We were also curious to study more on SIVs in other primate species, [00:02:30] and hopefully, to find a virus closely related to HIV-1.

We were also setting up a three laboratory facility to isolate the viruses that we potentially identified in Gabon. We started to screen captive primates at this research center, which housed also primatology units, which housed a large number of chimpanzees, a few gorillas. They had a [00:03:00] semi-captive mandrill colony. They had also Cercopithecus monkeys. 

Most of the primates had been tested previously by the group of [Masanori] Hayami. He was the first to describe the mandrill virus in this mandrill colony, but surprisingly, the chimpanzees had not been tested. We took the opportunity to test them, and we selected only those that have [00:03:30] been wild captured in Gabon to start with. Among the 50 chimpanzees that we tested at that time, 38 were housed at the primatology unit of the CIRMF (Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville), 11 were from pet chimpanzees, for which blood samples were available at CIRMF when people came to the Center for medical care or checkup visit for the animal, and one sample of was from a chimpanzee recently captured in a village two days before. [00:04:00]

When we tested these for an HIV with an HIV ELISA, surprisingly we saw two chimpanzees with high optical densities. (1, 2, 3) So what we do it for humans, we did the Western blots, and as you can see on this slide, they have at least one of them a clear HIV-1 profile and the other one has also antibodies cross-reacting with HIV-1 envelope proteins. If we look through the Western blot, [00:04:30] the sample tested on the Western blot of HIV-2, there was only cross-reaction risk p25. This was already a suggestion that we had maybe found a virus closely related to HIV-1. The virus has been isolated in Gabon, the electron microscopy has also been done in Gabon and the sequence analyzed has been done at the Pasteur Institute and confirmed that the virus was most closely related to HIV-1. (3) [00:05:00]

So, what are the history of these two positive chimps? The first one is Gab-1 was a female. She was four years old when she was tested for HIV antibodies. She was living in a European family. They did not have children, but they adopted a chimpanzee. The animal was captured at the age of six months in the north of Gabon and [00:05:30] because we were—it was really a surprise to find a chimpanzee with HIV-1 positive antibodies, we decided to retest a second sample also from the animal. When Eric examined more in detail the animal, he observed that the animal had chronic generalized lymphadenopathy with lymph nodes which were larger than three centimeters. The animal died accidentally in 1990 so we do not know if it is related [00:06:00] with this SIV infection, yes or no, but it could be.

The second positive chimpanzee was a female, two years old when we tested it for HIV. The mother of this animal has been killed by hunters in the village and the small baby chimpanzee had also shot wounds. The animal stayed only two days in this village, and it was rescued by Europeans [00:06:30] who passed by and took the animal for medical care to the center in Franceville where it died unfortunately, one week later.

One of the questions was also what about the humans who took care of these animals and what about HIV prevalence in the villages in Gabon? First of all, we decided to test people taking care of these two and especially the first animal which was a pet animal and growing up [00:07:00] almost as a child in this family. The animal had its own bedroom, it was dressed like a girl, so it was important to also to discuss with the people taking care of them: Okay, today you're having an animal, which is seropositive, maybe you should be careful when you have contact with the animal, especially if they have been bitten several times.

Also, the second [00:07:30] chimpanzee which had been rescued. This was a wild animal, so it spent 400 kilometers in the car, which it didn't like at all and the people had been bitten several times in the car. They were very anxious and wanted to know, "Did we get contaminated or not?" Eric followed these people for several years, but [unintelligible 00:07:52].

Also, we wanted to know what is going on with HIV in the village where we found [00:08:00] Gab-2. We performed a survey on HIV prevalence, we explained the problem to the chief of the village, he was very cooperative and almost everybody in the village has been screened for HIV antibodies and no single person was positive, which of course is logical because the overall HIV prevalence was still very low at the time in Gabon. (4)

When the contract in Gabon was finished, we moved to [00:08:30] Antwerp to the Institute of Tropical Medicine and joined the team of Peter Piot. We continued to test more chimpanzees and we decided to test the chimpanzees from the zoo in Antwerp. We found a new animal positive for HIV-1 antibodies. This time it was a male. He was four years old when we tested it. It was an animal that has been seized by the customs in Belgium when it arrived [00:09:00] illegally from the Democratic Republic of Congo. When we tested retrospectively [from] when it was seized by the customs, the animal was already HIV positive. Also again, it became a problem because the zoo didn't like to keep a seropositive animal, and the animal has been transferred later to the primate center in Holland (Biomedical Primate Research Centre).

The virus had been isolated and [00:09:30] sequenced, and we saw that this virus was quite different from the virus isolated from the chimpanzees in Gabon. We had the most and—this virus from this animal is the most divergent HIV-1 like virus at that time in his group. (5)

At the same period, it became also clear that the genetic diversity of HIV-1 was more important than we initially thought, because [00:10:00] several groups reported a new HIV-1 variant which we have called Group O. This virus wasn’t detected because initially it was not detected by the screening—most of the screening assays used at that time. 

When we finished in 1994, we had the opportunity to go join the IRD, Institute for Research and Development in Montpellier and set up our own group on HIV [00:10:30] research in Africa. We set up a big collaboration with Cameroon and this project which be called Projet PRESICA and coordination is done with Eitel Mpoudi-Ngole. We're still working with him today. This is a long-standing, very fruitful collaboration. 

Martine Peeters is Research Director at the French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (IRD) 

 

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Initially, we decided to start to work in Cameroon because [00:11:00] it was an interesting country to learn more about HIV diversity, but it is also an interesting country to do more studies on SIV because a lot of fragments are present in Cameroon. But throughout the study, the project was not only set up to study genetic diversity, it was seen in a bigger context. We also wanted to improve care for HIV patients, [00:11:30] provide access for—advocate for access to treatment and the first evaluation of the feasibility of generic drugs has been done in the framework of this project. We did also a lot of capacity building. We have a lab now who is able to do viral or testing in genotypic drug resistance testing, and accredited by the WHO and we did a lot of training.

When [00:12:00] we say three cross species transmission, from SIVs to humans, that means that there must be a lot of contact between humans and primates. We said: if you want to do more studies on SIVs, let's focus on the primates which are in contact with humans. We started to screen SIV infection in pet monkeys, and also in bushmeat monkeys, because primates are frequently hunted for bushmeat [00:12:30] and are sold on markets in the villages, but also in cities.

Between '95 and 2000, we were able to collect almost 800 samples from pet monkeys and bushmeat animals monkeys around Yaoundé mainly, as we saw that more than 60% of them cross reacted with HIV antigens and we isolated more than five new— [00:13:00] we identified more than five new SIV lineages in this sample set in five different species. (6)

Given this data, we decided that we have to extend our studies in bushmeat, and we did bushmeat surveys in other regions in Cameroon and also in another country: We decided to do it in the Democratic Republic of Congo, because this was one of the countries important [00:13:30] in the origin of HIV. These studies are allowed us to study more and more different monkey species, and also to identify again more new SIV lineages. But we learned also that SIV prevalence can vary according to geographic regions, and also vary according to the different species. And within a species, it depends also where you capture the samples.

[00:14:00] What we learned also was that most frequently hunted species in Cameroon, for example, are not frequently infected with SIVs, but the opposite was true in the DRC. Exposure to SIVs and potential risk for cross species transmission is not the same everywhere. 

Today finally, we know that SIV is widespread among African monkeys. At least 45 [00:14:30] different species are known to be infected, each species apparently with a species specific SIV. But if you look more in detail, it's not as easy as that. For some species, we see a coevolution between viruses and hosts, but we have also many examples of cross species transmissions followed by recombination but importantly, none of the monkeys was infected with a virus closely related to HIV-1. This was already seen in [00:15:00] chimpanzees.

While we made rapidly a lot of progress in identifying new SIV lineages in studying primate bushmeat, knowledge on SIV infection in chimpanzees went much more slowly because these are dangerous species, not easy to take blood from, and have access to. After the three isolates that we identified between '89 and '92, [00:15:30] the fourth isolate was only reported seven years later by Beatrice Hahn when she reported the SIVcpz infection in a chimpanzee from the United States. (7) This was also the first occasion that we worked together because she asked us [for] the DNA from the previous samples to compare and identify the host species and I think she will go more in detail in these results. [00:16:00]

In Cameroon, four other captive primates have also been described, but between '89 and 2005, we had only seven samples from chimpanzees available. In 15 years, seven samples, it was really slowly. Also, despite the efforts that we did in Cameroon to collect samples from pet monkeys—we collected more than 500 samples from [00:16:30] pet monkeys, but only 25 of them were from chimpanzees, and all of them are negative. And as you can see on this slide, most of these animals were also not housed in very good conditions.

If you want to obtain more data on the SIV infection in chimpanzees, it is important to study SIV in wild populations. However, this is easier to say than to do, given the way how this animals live and their highly [00:17:00] endangered status. That's the reason that Beatrice did a lot of efforts to try to identify SIV infection in samples that can be collected in a non-invasive way, and she showed the feasibility to detect SIV infection in feces and urine. (8, 9, 10) She did it initially on experimentally infected chimpanzees, and the naturally infected chimpanzee from the zoo from Antwerp. [00:17:30] Then when it was feasible, she started to set up studies in East Africa on wild chimpanzee population, in collaboration with primatologists who were studying the behavior of the chimps and who took also fecal samples during the observations, and she was able to show too evidence of SIV infection.

But in West Central Africa and Cameroon, we don't have habituated chimpanzee populations. [00:18:00] If you want to learn more about these chimps, how do you collect fecal samples from non-habituated chimpanzee populations? It's a little bit more difficult. We had to learn how to find chimpanzee populations, how to track these animals in the wild. It took us a while to learn how to recognize vocal signs, how to recognize footprints in the forest from these animals, which could lead us [00:18:30] to feeding sites or nesting sites from these animals, where we have high probability to collect fecal samples. It took us a lot of time to learn all this and to become very performant in it, but today we have now a well-trained team.

Since 2003, the day when we started to collect, they collected now more than 12,000 fecal samples in Cameroon, Gabon and [00:19:00] Central African Republic. When they go in the field, they also take a lot of field data like first of all the GPS location. Is it from the nesting sites? How many nesting sites were present at the same time? What is the size of the nesting sites to learn a bit a bit above social structure of the samples? How fresh were the samples? Then in the lab, we tested them for antibodies and for RNA [00:19:30] using the techniques that Beatrice developed. 

It was very labor-intensive and difficult to go in this first and we said if once we are there, we take the opportunity to collect as much as possible of different material. Chimpanzees and gorillas are sympatric species, and we said we should also collect fecal samples [00:20:00] from gorillas and test them. That's what we did, and we saw that some of them have also cross-reactive antibodies to HIV-1 proteins. When we characterized the virus, we saw that, in contrast to that, what we saw in the chimpanzees' samples from Cameroon, which Beatrice will go more in detail, and we treat more related to HIV-1 group M and N, that the gorilla samples were more closely [00:20:30] related to the divergent HIV-1 group O samples circulating in Cameroon. (11)

The phylogenetic tree learnt also that gorillas most likely became infected by chimpanzees. Not many data are available between aggressive interactions between gorillas and chimpanzees but primatologists in northern Congo, they studied a lot how chimpanzees and gorillas [00:21:00] behave together, and they observed several times, chimpanzees and gorillas sitting in the same tree.They observed also that chimpanzees and gorillas ate the same food. It cannot be excluded, that in periods that there's not a lot of food available, that aggressive behavior can occur. (12)

Today, we made a lot of progress apparently, but at the same time, [00:21:30] there is still a lot to do. If you look at the primal distribution on this map in Africa in green and in the red circles, the areas where studies have been conducted are primates. Then we see that they are still a lot empty. There is uneven sampling geographically, and also, a lot of species have not been sampled yet, or are largely unsampled. [00:22:00] 

For example, the work we did with Beatrice, where she focused on sampling in East Africa for chimpanzees and gorillas. We focused on West Central Africa and the fact that it is easier to collect fecal samples from apes than from monkeys. We were able to collect more than 60,000 samples for each species covering almost the entire habitat or range of these two species. [00:22:30] If you look to other monkeys, for example, colobus monkeys, which you see that their habitat is also very large. Less than 100 animals have been tested with only a few positive. For these colobus monkeys, we see already that the virus from East and West Africa are quite different, represent different lineages.

The same is also the case for De Brazza's monkeys, for which we have less than 100 samples collected in [00:23:00] two limited samples regions. However, despite all this, we learned a lot on the origin of HIV-1 and HIV-2 through this study. We learned also a lot on SIV prevalences and potential exposure to infected [unintelligible] monkeys, but our experience is apparently, the more we sample, the more we identify [00:23:30] new SIVs, the more we see that a genetic diversity is important within species, between species: that if you look more in detail to the sequences of these viruses, that the evolutionary history becomes more and more complex. There are many examples of cross-species transmissions and recombination. It seems that if you want to understand SIV evolution, that a pluridisciplinary approach can be very useful. [00:24:00] Knowledge of primate behavior of ecology can learn us a lot of the viral structures of—viral similarity between different species.

An intriguing example of a complex virus, for example, is the chimpanzee virus. If you look more in detail to the sequence from this chimpanzee, we see that the genome is—one part of the genome is closely related to the virus circulating in [00:24:30] these two species and the other part is closely related to the virus circulating in red-capped mangabeys. This is probably because chimpanzees also hunt small monkeys and eat small monkeys. Like humans, they could become infected when they hunt and bite through the humans. Chimpanzees transmitted the virus to gorillas, and today, we know that each of them transmitted the virus two times to humans. [00:25:00] 

Other lessons that we learned from these studies on SIV in wide populations is also that maybe not all SIVs are transmittable to humans or to chimpanzees. If you look, for example, in West Africa where western red colobus monkeys are highly infected with SIVs, with 50% to 80% infected. They're extensively hunted by humans and by chimpanzees, and today, we do not see a similar virus circulating in humans nor in chimpanzees. [00:25:30]

However, in the same area, you have sooty mangabeys, highly infected, heavily hunted by humans, not by chimpanzees. But they transmitted their virus at least nine times to humans in the same region. These studies are on SIVs and the characterization of SIVs and their hosts were also good opportunities to develop studies on viral adaptation and restriction factors to learn which virus can easily adapt or the virus [00:26:00] which can be easily transmitted. (13, 14)

Another question is the pathogenicity of SIVs in naturally infected animals. A lot of studies would have been done on captive colonies of infected mangabeys and African monkeys, which apparently do not develop a disease. However, maybe the situation can be different in the wild. Maybe chimpanzees are an example of this, and I think Beatrice will also go more in detail on this. [00:26:30] We also observed in Cameroon, a chimpanzee which was captured as an infant and who died at the age of nine years with symptoms that are closely related to AIDS.

What about gorillas? They're also infected with an SIV, they're an endangered species. Does this SIV infection have negative impact on the survival of these animals? We tried to do studies [00:27:00] to try to answer a little bit on this question, but it is not easy to do because we have no captive SIV infected gorillas. There are no habituated SIV infected gorilla populations. We tried to do this in a non-invasive way on the non-habituated populations.

Gorillas, they don't move a lot. They stay very close—I think, over years, they stay almost in the same area. [00:27:30] Since 2004, we go in the region in southwestern Cameroon where we know that 10% to 20% of the gorilla populations are infected. We go there in a regular base hoping to collect fecal samples from the same animals, which we characterized by microsatellite analysis.

Today, we know that in this 20 kilometer surface area, we have 130 different gorillas, 40 of them are infected with [00:28:00] SIV. We have follow-up samples for at least half of them on a 2 to 10 year period. We observed seroconversions and we tried to use indirect markers to see if there was any relationship between SIV infection or not in these populations.

Finally, the studies on SIVs in wild primates learned us that there's still ongoing exposure to a wide diversity of SIVs.

[00:28:30] Also to SIVs from chimpanzees and gorillas, they are still hunted for bushmeat. These pictures are taken by people from our team during the project. On the ongoing transmissions of SIVs through humans, HIV-1 P has been described in 2009. (15) In 2013, we described a new HIV-2 group. (16) All these recent transmissions [00:29:00] are not—however, we know that today, other retroviruses are transmitted from primate to humans. There are examples for foamy viruses from STLVs (Simian-T-lymphotropic virus).

If a new virus is transmitted to humans today and it can adapt to humans, probably, we have conditions that are present that the virus can spread more rapidly now today than it did 100 years ago, as it was [00:29:30] for HIV-1 group M. Of course, there is not only SIV in these animals, they were also infected by a lot of other pathogens that can be potentially transmitted to humans, for example, Ebola. We studied also plasmodium in these animals, and the sample collection can also be used for a lot to study a lot of other pathogens at the interface between humans and primates. 

Finally, [00:30:00] these studies have only been possible by the motivation and the continuous collaboration by many people. The different students that we had in our laboratory in Montpellier. Of course, all the work in Cameroon was only possible because we had Eitel Mpoudi coordinating all this for us. In Congo, the work was possible because of the coordination of Steve [Ahuka] and Professor [Jean-Jacques] Muyembe. [00:30:30] Finally, all these was only possible because of the close collaboration and the complimentary collaboration that we had with Beatrice and many other collaborations, of course in United States, Europe, and African [unintelligible 00:30:47] and other groups. Thank you for that.

[applause] 

Jeff Lifson (Moderator): We have time for a couple of quick questions before the break. Mike? [00:31:00]

Mike Emerman: Martine, do you think that there will be monkey species that are negative?

Martine: Can you repeat?

Mike: Have you found any monkey species that are consistently negative? Do you think there are any primates--

Jeff: That don't have an SIV?

Mike: Beyond the apes that are--

Martine: Yes, we found monkey [00:31:30] species without SIV infection. Again, I'm not sure that we tested enough samples to be sure that they are not infected because if we, for example, gorillas, if we were lucky to find positive samples early in our studies, but we test it later on so many, many gorilla samples in other sites and never found [00:32:00] out a positive gorilla.

So if we had started our studies on gorillas and other areas, we would say, "No, gorillas are not infected because we have not tested enough samples." I think most of the species that we have said today, they are not infected. Most of them we have not tested much samples are only in limited areas. I think it's maybe too early to say there's no infection. [00:32:30]

Cody Warren: Have you been able to use your studies to influence the cultural behavior of some of these groups, these African groups of hunting and eating bushmeat, and so on? The risk of this spillover back and forth between humans and non-human primates through those cultural practices?

Martine: If we did anthropological studies?

Cody: No. Have you been able to--

Jeff: Does it change behavior to know that the monkeys that are being hunted and eaten are positive?

Martine: We tried to [00:33:00] inform the—When we saw these high prevalence of SIVs in bushmeat, I didn't show the slide but we decided to inform people, "Maybe you should take care. These animals harbor a lot of viruses." We made a brochure to explain to people, monkeys can be infected with SIVs, but also with other pathogens to try to reduce the consumption of bushmeat. However, that is not so [00:33:30] easy to do because in some areas of Africa, there is no other way to have proteins available than hunting.

[00:33:40] [END OF AUDIO]


 

#clinical trials

Citations

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Index 

 

Found 4 search result(s) for Peeters.

Page: Delaporte, Eric (HIV/AIDS Research: Its History & Future Meeting)
... Infectious and Tropical Diseases at the University and the University Hospital of Montpellier. He is the husband of Martine Peeters
Jan 24, 2021
Page: 4.3 Beatrice Hahn — Apes to Humans: The Origin of HIV (HIV/AIDS Research: Its History & Future Meeting)
... subspecies, that was the first piece in the puzzle. (1) The last piece in the puzzle really was Martine Peeters’ paper in 2015, where she described the origin of HIV1 group O 00 ...
Nov 11, 2021
Page: 4.4 Michael Worobey — Spread of HIV in the New World (HIV/AIDS Research: Its History & Future Meeting)
... invitation. I'm going to carry on the story from where Ron Desrosiers and Martine Peeters and Beatrice left off, and I'm going to concentrate on getting us back to this morning's ...
Apr 27, 2021
Page: 2.5 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi — Discovery of HIV (HIV/AIDS Research: Its History & Future Meeting)
... lot of work on the diversity and then the origin of HIV, we will hear later on from Martine Peeters 00:24:00 and probably Beatrice Hahn also, a lot of work on diversity ...
Apr 27, 2021

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